g) The Period of Taking a New Direction


The variation of the oppression and encouragement policy towards Buddhism ended after the middle of the Choson Period. In the earlier part of the dynasty, Buddhist thought and belief had some influence on the general trend of events. But Neo-Confucian scholars led the Korean academic community and they became more and more powerful from the middle period on. Accordingly, Buddhism which had to survive in the mountains from the time of King Chungjong (r. 1506-1544) had a more urgent task in merely existing than it did in developing any new thought. Therefore Buddhism tried hard to find a way to harmonize Confucianism and Buddhism.
In an effort to reconcile the differences and put an end to the conflict, various books were written. Master Kihwa clearly states this intention in his Hyonjong-non (Clarification of the Right) written in the early period. The book was aimed at putting an end to Confucian scholars' misunderstanding of Buddhism and informing them of the true meaning. It was a kind of philosophical confrontation of the Confucian theory of the reasons for the rejection of Buddhism, but the conclusion was about the harmonization of Confucianism and Buddhism. Another book by an anonymous writer, Yusok-chirui-ron, was written with the same purpose in view and therefore contains the same material. Master Po-u's theory of "one right" was developed for the same purpose and it concerned the "one" as a universal principle and the "right" as an ethical principle. Through these means different master worked to harmonize Confucianism and Buddhism. Efforts at reconciliation continued. Master Sosan Hyujong who led the Buddhist community of the middle Choson Period, tried hard to bring about peace. In his Son-ga-kui-gam (Paragon of Zen Family), he advocated the reconciliation of the three teachings, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. The task of Buddhism, which had been the union of Meditation and Study up to the middle of the Koryo Period, became the harmonization of Confucianism and Buddhism in Choson Dynasty.

In spite of all these negative influences, the Buddhist philosophical tendency of the early Choson Period moved forward. Though eight Meditation Schools and various Study Schools were amalgamated into two, Meditation and Study, by force, Zen and Ch'ont'ae communities were still active, and Zen philosophy was constantly trying to embrace Study. Besides, the project of writing Korean Buddhist texts, translation from Chinese into Korean was continued by kings Sejong and Sejo who actively encouraged Buddhism. The project was magnificent in scale, and it had an important philosophical meaning as well. The main Mahayana texts involved were: Surangama-sutra, Lotus Sutra, Diamond Sutra, and Heart Sutra. In addition, esoteric Buddhist texts, and various Zen texts were also published in han-gul, the new Korean script which King Sejong had invented. The extensive publication of these traditional Study texts is proof that, even though Choson Buddhism was mainly concerned with Meditation, Study also played an important role.

The project was of further importance because of the use of han-gul which was only employed by the masses and innovative Buddhist monks and supporters. This was of special interest as it attests to the popularization of Buddhism. In spite of these events, Buddhism was mainly oppressed and suffered greatly under the persecution of the government. The policy continued without change after the middle period. However then there was also a new trend in Buddhist thinking. Now, the main task of the Choson Buddhist community became the transmission of Dharma lineages. That is, whereas the interpretation of Study from the standpoint of Meditation was prominent in the early period, the so-called theory of "throwing up Study and entering Meditation" became pervasive in the late period, hence the system of Dharma transmission appeared. But this does not indicate the absolute disappearance of the Study approach. Traditional Study systems like Avatamsa, Lotus Flower, Pure Land, and Esoteric Buddhism still continued. Besides these, Zen accepted Avatamsa especially the Madhyamika School and Pure Land chanting, even though Zen finally intended to resolve the other thoughts into itself. As a result, the unique phenomenon of the simultaneous practice of the three approaches, that is, Zen meditation, studying texts, and esoteric chanting was followed in the late Choson Period.

The above phenomena of Dharma transmission and the practicing of the three approaches was the Buddhist way of existence under the attack of the government. All official religious activities of Buddhism were blocked and so in order for anything to take place, it had to be done in the seclusion of the mountains. It was inevitable that the Buddhist community could only be sustained by way of the Zen transmission of Dharma lineages. Also it was only natural for a community which had already lost its own particular characteristics to practice various doctrinal teachings such as Avatamsa, Pure Land, esoteric and belief in Avalokitesvara simultaneously.

But the above attitude, besides being a method of handling historical hardship, can be understood as the establishment of a new philosophical direction which was holistic. In fact, it is not excessive to say that Korean Buddhist thought has pursued a holistic approach ever since the time of its introduction right up to the present moment. Though Buddhist thought from the middle to late Choson periods was formed under the stress of oppression, it, too, was holistic. This is the reason that the middle and the late Choson periods are here described as the time during which a new direction in the sense of further development was created.?

This, then, is most of the important information on the history of Korean Buddhism. Now we will pass on to a brief consideration of some of the features which make Korean Buddhism unique.